EOTO: The History of the Radio

 Radio is defined as communication by radio waves through the transmission of music, news, and more from broadcast stations to many listeners.

 For years, scientists were trying to figure out a way they could send wireless messages, and many notable names like Nikola Tesla, and Heinrich Hertz worked to make the modern radio possible. Nikola Tesla, a Serbian American inventor, was the one who discovered the basis for the alternating current and created the Tesla Coil which is widely used in radios. In 1885, Heinrich Hertz, a German physicist proved that you could send and receive electric waves wirelessly; the measurement we use to measure wireless frequencies are named after him. In 1890, an Italian inventor by the name of Guglielmo Marconi had the idea for a wireless telegraph. He continued to work on his inventions and in 1895, he sent a wireless morse code message to a source over a kilometer away. He received a patent for it. By 1900, there were 4 competing wireless systems. 

Before WWI scientists from big companies like American Telephone and Telegraph (now AT&T) and General Electric, as well as independent inventors were trying to figure out a way to send wireless messages that were more advanced than morse code. In December of 1906, Reginald Fessenden, a Canadian inventor, produced an hour of talk and music radio for technical observers and radio amateurs from Massachusetts. In 1908, in San Jose California, Charles “Doc” Herrold was the first person to start providing regularly scheduled voice and music programs for his listeners. 

During WWI, the government forced radio transmitters off the air and the advancement in radio technology was stalled. After the war, in the 1920s there was a radio boom and during this time, radios began being integrated into society. The golden age of the radio was between 1935 and 1955. During this time it became a household item and around 60% of American families owned a radio. 

The radio revolutionized communication in many ways. It sped up the news process by being able to broadcast what was happening almost immediately instead of having to wait a few days for the press to receive the information and then print it out and deliver it. It also made news more accessible for people living in rural areas because it would take them even longer to receive their news. During WWII, reports of battles, victories, and defeats were broadcasted. Political leaders like presidents, Martin Luther King Jr., Winston Churchill, Hitler, and more had their messages broadcasted over the radio to reach larger groups of people and influence public opinion.     

When it came to using the radio for entertainment purposes, people had greater access to a variety of music and many artists like the Beatles, Elvis Presley, and Ella Fitzgerald gained popularity due to their music being broadcasted. Families would gather around the radio to listen to plays, comedy routines, sports broadcasting, church services, and more. Universities began to offer radio based courses, and for navigation, ships and panes began using the radio to figure out where either ships and planes were.

To this day the radio is in use in many different ways. There are mobile radios, like walkie-talkies, hand held radios, and even our cell phones can be considered radios, not to mention, you have a radio app on your phone where you can listen to both FM and AM radio stations. Radios are in every car, and people like truck drivers and police officers use radios to communicate with each other while in the field.

EOTO: The Carrier Pigeon

 During our EOTO presentations, I learned about many interesting forms of communication. The one that interested me the most was the presentation about the carrier pigeons. I was so surprised to learn that carrier pigeons were so significant in communication history as well as significant enough to even be considered a "communication technology." 

During both of the world wars, carrier pigeons were used to carry messages back and forth and as technology progressed, they were also photographers on the battle field.  hey took only 6 weeks
to train and they were a valuable asset to the war effort. They played a major role in the intelligence service in WWII  and even carried messages that saved lives. The pigeons had a rough life though, they would sometimes be shot down because they would be seen as spies and their messages would get intercepted. There was a notable pigeon named Cher Ami. He delivered his message even though he was blinded in one eye, he got shot, and his leg was hanging on by a tendon. He delivered 12 important messages and the last message he delivered, he saved 194 soldiers and let them know that thy were safe behind American lines.  He received the  French Croix de Guerre with palm award for his brave service. 

The Stifling of Anti-War Voices

 Back in the day, you could be thrown in jail for speaking out against war, technically today, you still could be if it's seen as incitement.  You never hear on the big news channels like CNN, FOX, NBC, etc.  about people speaking up against the war. You never hear about strong anti war opinions on any mainstream media. Why is that?  

During wartime, the government can do things that they can't usually do, and one of those things includes impacting freedom of speech.  As I said above,  antiwar voices are often stifled or face consequences for their actions. In 1919, there were many supreme court cases of  people getting thrown in jail for speaking out against the war like the Schenck v. United States Case.  During that case, Justice Oliver Wendell Homes stated that, "When a nation is at war, many things that might be said in times of peace are such a hindrance to its effort that their utterance will not be endured so long as men fight, and that no Court could regard them as protected by any constitutional right." So basically he said the government can restrict speech in war time more than in times of peace. We all know that we are in "Wartime." How?  Well, America is in armed conflict with  Iraq, Syria, Somalia, Pakistan, Yemen and Libya.  We've also sent  $2.9 billion to Ukraine to aid them in the conflict between them and Russia, and I feel like that involves us in that conflict in a way too.   

Looking at sites like Antiwar.com and The American Conservative,  you see headlines that you don't even see in mainstream news and  strong voices against the war.  I think that we have to see out websites like this because the American government, or any government for that matter doesn't want a large majority of its people/ the population to realize that half of these wars are fought for literally no reason other than money and to possibly rally against the government, or refuse to fight in the war. I also think they stifle anti-war  voices because if it seems like everyone is for the war, then you have no internal conflicts with the people.  It also shows a false image of loyalty and patriotism. 

Eight Values of Freedom Expression

 In America, we have freedoms that are protected under the 1st amendment. The amendment protects our freedom of speech, religion, to petition and to peaceably assemble. Reading the speech theories which is comprised of eight values of free expression, has given me more insight about why freedom of speech is so important. The first value is Marketplace of Ideas, it was proposed by John Milton and it suggests that truth will always win over falsehood. The next one is Participation in Self-Government, proposed by Alexander Meiklejohn. This theory suggests that citizens can’t make an informed election choice if candidates are restricted in their communication. The third value is Stable Change, proposed by Benedict Spinoza, which suggests that people in society should be able to vent and speak out against the government. Having that freedom would lead to a more stable and safer society. Value four is Individual Self-Fulfillment, proposed by C. Edwin Baker. This states that free speech allows one to express themself and create their own identity, thus resulting in autonomy. After that, value five is Check on Governmental Power proposed by Vince Blasi. It suggests that we the people, as well as the press are a part of the checks and balances system. Value six proposed by Lee Bollinger, is to promote tolerance. This theory suggests that since hate speech is protected under the first amendment, it leads us to become a better, more tolerable society, with knowing what is and isn’t socially acceptable. Theory seven is to promote innovation, proposed by Jack Balkin. This states that a society that has the freedom of speech is basically a better community. The final value is Protect Dissent, proposed by Steve Shiffrin. This suggests that we SHOULD criticize the government.

Reading over these values of free expression, I think the one that resonated the most with me was probably the Promote Innovation. It also feels the most personal.  Being a game design major and someone who likes art in general, I can’t imagine how our society would be if we had major restrictions on what we could create. For example if we had restrictions on art expression, would we have the public sculptures of Jonathan Bowling? Would we have the works of Salvador Dali? I also resonate with the Self-Fulfillment value. This is a basic example, but I could never imagine having to wear
a uniform to school. Having to wear a uniform takes away your individuality and your creativity, especially when you’re young. With all of these free expression values, you see each one in effect in America today. We’re allowed to criticize the government without getting killed or thrown in jail, we are allowed to create art and have our own beliefs, we are allowed to make movies, and video games, and tv shows, we are allowed to hear out the election candidates without restriction. 

SCOTUS History

We all know about the three branches of government: the legislative, executive and the judicial. The supreme court is the nation's highest court and is head of the judicial branch. It has ultimate jurisdiction over the laws passed and also has the power to check the other two branches. 

Reading this article, I learned many new things about the Supreme court that I was not aware of. First of all, the court was established in 1789 by article 3 of the constitution. The court's justices are selected by the President and then approved by the Senate. In 1869, congress made 9 the set number of seats and it is the same to this day. With that being said, the supreme court is made up of 9 Justices and they are on the court for life. Honestly, I'm not sure h
ow I feel about the president being able to choose who they want on the court and then of course the senate has the power to approve or deny the nominees, but do they really deny the nominees that often? What is the criteria? I feel like you could have a very biased supreme court if you wanted to as president. According to senate.gov, the senate approves the "vast majority" of nominees. The senate has confirmed around 126 nominations. 

The most important take away point about the supreme court is that it has made decisions on multiple decisions that have had lasting effects on the nation to this day. The most interesting thing that I learned was that all three presidents that were impeached were acquitted.